Hey there! These flash cards were made with Cramberry, a site for creating,
studying, and sharing flash cards online. Get started
or learn more.
Positive vs. Negative correlation
- positive: as one variable increases, so does the other.
ex: entrance exam scores for colleges correlates positively with grades
- negative: as one goes up, the other tends to go down.
ex: classes missed and GPA
Correlation Coefficient
- a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables.
- absolute value (without +/-) indicates how strongly the two variables are associated,
Prisoners' Dilemma
- tit-for-tat: respond as your partner does
- win-stay, lose-shift: stay with stratgy if payoff is high, shift if payoff is low.
Social Dilemmas
situations in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyone
- what is good for one is bad for all
Factors that reduce effectiveness of group brainstorming
1) Production Blocking: when people have to wait for their turn to speak – may forget or ideas, or lose interesting
2) Free riding: as others contribute ideas, individuals may feel less motivated to work hard themselves. They see their own contributions as less necessary or less likely to have much impact.
3) Evaluation apprehension: in the presence of others, people may be hesitant to suggest wild, off-the-wall ideas for fear of looking foolish and being criticized.
4) Performance matching: group members work only as hard as they see others work.
Brainstorming
a technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions.
Prevention of groupthink:
1) avoid Isolation
-consulting people outside the group
2) Reduce conformity pressures
3)make critical thinking normal
Consquences of groupthink:
Poor decision making:
-failure to consider objectives/goals
-poor information gathering and processing
-fail to consider alternative options
-failure to work out contingency plans
Symptoms of groupthink:
1) overestimation of the group
2) close-mindedness
3) pressures toward uniformity
-mindguards
-self-censorship
-illusion of unanimity
Predictors of groupthink: (3)
1) highly cohesive groups
2) Group structure
-homogeneous members
-isolation
-directive leadership
-unsystematice procedures
3) stressful situations
groupthink and when does it happen
the exessive tendency to seek concurrence among group members.
-it occurs when: Need for agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make appropriate decisions.
Why does social loafing happen?
Collective Effort Model: individuals try hard on a collective task when they think their efforts will help them personally
When does social loafing not occur?
1) Individual Level
--performance can be identified
--task is important to those doing it;
--people think their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome
2)Group Factors
--punishment for poor performance
--group is small
--group is cohesive
Social Loafing:
a group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled
deindividuation:
the loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior
- due to accountability cues and attentional cues
-- accountability cues: affect the individual's cost-reward calculations
- collective phenomenon
- only occurs in the presence of others
groups vs. collectives
1) Group: a set of individuals who have at least one of the following characteristics:
- direct interactions w/ each other over a period of time
- joint memberships in a social category based on sex, race, or other attributes
- a shared, common fate, identify, or set of goals
2) Collective: people engaged in common activities, but having minimal direct interaction. (not a real group)
Sequential Request Strategies
1) Foot-in-the-door technique: a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request. Once the first step is elicited, a larger request will follow. Only works when people are motivated to be consistent with their self-images.
- See themselves as helpful/cooperative
2) Low-Balling: a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs.
--EX: buying a car and being offered a great deal at first but the manager won't approve it.
--Go along b/c psychology of commitment
3) Door-in-the-face technique: a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected.
4) That's Not All: a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a bonus or discount
- ex: cupcake reg price at $2 (no buy) then a cupcake on sale for $2 but regularly $3.50 – you buy b/c its on sale, even if you would not buy the cupcake at two dollars regularly
Requests – how to get what you want
--- talk fast and catch people off guard
--- disarmed people with your words
-- how you ask
--people often w/o fully processing
---do something nice for the person, then ask
--short-lived, but we feel obligated to repay for acts of kindness, even when unsolicited
---use sequential requests
Impact of group size (5)
--Conformity increases with group size, but only to a point!
--Awareness of norms: conform only when know social norms. Can be wrong!
--Having an ally reduces conformity
--Majority: because of their power and control, majorities elicit public conformity thorugh normative pressures
--Minority: because seen as seriously committed to their views, minorities produce private conformity, or conversion
Milgram's study on obedience and its implications
Importance Factors for obedience:
--physical presence and apparent legitimacy of the authority figure
--victims proximity
--experimental procedure: participants were led to feel relieved of personal responsibility of victim's welfare. Gradual escalation was used
Asch's line experiment, its findings, and its replications
--compare three lines to a standard line with 6 other students around the table. They others purposely say the wrong line. 37% of the time, the person would conform to the wrong answer, more than if they were alone. 50% of the time a person would go along at least half of the time.
--It is socially awkward to give an answer completely different than what everyone else said.
--Obvious that the group was wrong
--how beliefs might affect other's beliefs
Sherif's autokinetic study and its findings
--Sherif - based on conformity, told they were in a visual perception experiment over how much a dot moves. When people were around others, over time they began to report numbers closer to the group as a whole
--when they were uncertain, they had no one to turn to
--ambiguous task
--participants turned to eachother for guidance
--development of group norm
obedience
behavior change produced by the commands of authority
compliance
changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests
conformity
the tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms
2 Effective Sources for being persuasive
1. Credible
--believable sources must be be credible sources
--to be seen as credible, a source must have: (1) competence or expertise (2) trustworthiness
2.Likable
--how likable is the communicator?
--Two factors that influence likability: (1) similarity between source and audience and (2) physical attractiveness of source
What determines which route of persuasion (central vs peripheral) is used?
1. Central Route to Persuasion: the process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments
--assumption that the recipients are attentive, active, critical, and thoughtful
--thoughtful process – not necessarily objective
--ex: http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2005/radiohead-fan-paranoid-android/
--high ability or motivation
2. Peripheral Route to Persuasion: the process by which a new person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.
---Message evaluated through use of simple-minded heuristics
--influenced by attitude-irrelevant factors
--ex: http://www.cottonelle.com/ads.aspx
--low ability or motivation
Ways to reduce dissonance
1. Change your attitude
2 Change your perception of the behavior
3. Add consonant cognitions
4. Minimize the importance of the conflict.
5. Reduce perceived choice
Insufficient deterrence:
a condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.
Insufficient justification
a condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.
Festinger & Carlsmith & noteworthy aspects
board with turning nobs and applying/taking off string and then being offered a certain amount to tell the next group that the activity was very fun. People who were paid only one dollar said the experiment was mildly interesting b/c they changed their attitudes
Noteworthy Aspects:
1) showed the phenomenon of self-persuasion: when people behave in ways that contradict their attitudes, they sometimes go on to change those attitudes without any exposure to a persuasive communication
2) contradicted the time-honored belief that big rewards produce greater change. In fact, more money participants were offered for their inconsistent behavior, the more justified they felt and the less likely they were to change their attitudes.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the theory that holding inconsistent cognition arouses psychological tension that people become motivated the reduce
4 types of attitudes
1. Positive Attitude: High positive reaction, low negative reaction
2. Dual Attitudes (Ambiviance): high positive reaction, high negative reaction
3. Indifference: Low positive reaction, low negative reaction
4. Negative Attitude: Low positive reaction, high negative reaction
Overcoming self-report challenges (6 & definition of each)
1. attitude scales : a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object.
2. Bogus pipeline: a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.
3. Covert measures uses measures of attitudes that cannot be controlled like observable behavior such as facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language.
- Heads a horizontal direction when speaker took a position on a belief opposite to those being observed.
- sometimes people monitor behavior like self-reports
4. acial electromyograph (EMG) : an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes
- Disagreeable message sparked activity in forehead, pattern that associated with sadness and distress. Agreeable sparked cheek muscles = happiness.
5. electoencephalograph (EEG) recorded brain”waves” which are triggered by exposure to stimuli that are novel or inconsistent. More activity with a neg after positive or positive after negatives
6. Implicit Association Test (IAT) a covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts – such as black or white with good or bad.
- implicit attitudes: an attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having
